what factors are used to split lakes and ponds into zones

Littoral Zone

J A Peters and D One thousand Lodge, University of Notre Matriarch, Notre Dame, IN, U.s.

© 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

The littoral zone of a lake is the nearshore interface between the terrestrial ecosystem and the deeper pelagic zone of the lake. Information technology is the surface area where at to the lowest degree one percent of the photosynthetically active light (400-700 nm) entering the water reaches the sediment, assuasive primary producers (macrophytes and algae) to flourish. The littoral zone is structurally and functionally an important part of most lakes for several reasons. Outset, most lakes on Globe are small and therefore, the littoral zone comprises a large proportion of total lake area (Effigy ane). Second, as an interface, the coastal zone influences the movement and processing of material flowing into the lake from terrestrial runoff, groundwater, or stream connections, thus affecting the concrete and biological processes in this zone and the rest of the lake ecosystem. Third, the littoral zone is by and large the most productive area of the lake, particularly in terms of aquatic plants and invertebrates. Finally, human uses of aquatic systems (swimming, fishing, boating, power generation, irrigation, etc.) oft focus on the coastal zone.

In the showtime section, the physical structure and nutrient dynamics within the littoral zone are described. In the 2d department, interactions among organisms in the littoral zone are discussed, in addition to interactions between the coastal and terrestrial ecosystems, and between the coastal and pelagic zones. In the concluding department, anthropogenic effects on the littoral zone are described.

Factors Influencing the Concrete Structure and Nutrient Dynamics of the Littoral Zone

Many characteristics make up one's mind the pct of the lake that is coastal zone and the blazon of lake-bottom substrates plant at that place. Littoral zone area and substrate type, in plough, influence the processing of incoming nutrients, minerals, and organic matter and therefore the functioning of the entire lake.

Concrete Structure of the Littoral Zone

Zonation In full general, the littoral zone can be divided into upper, center, and lower zones, extending from the shoreline area sprayed by waves to the lesser of the littoral zone, beneath which light does non penetrate

(Figure 2). Emergent vegetation is rooted in the upper coastal zone; floating vegetation is found in the middle coastal; and submergent vegetation often grows in the lower coastal. The littoriprofundal, which is inhabited by algae and autotrophic bacteria, is a transitional zone below the lower coastal zone. Below this transitional zone, fine particles permanently settle into the profundal zone because wind or convection current energy is non sufficient at these depths to resuspend the particles. The littoral zone depth commonly corresponds to the summer epilimnion depth in stratified lakes.

Habitats Compared with the homogeneous distribution of sediments in the profundal zone, the habitats and sediments of the littoral zone are distributed as heterogeneous patches (Figure 3).

Sizes of particles in the sediments range from very fine organic and inorganic particles (muck or silt) to large cobble and boulders. Macrophytes and fallen copse often provide vertical substrates inside the coastal zone (refer to 'see also' department). The abundance and distribution of habitats within the coastal zone mediates the abundance, variety, and interactions of biota. For example, cobble substrates provide a refuge for crayfish from fish predation; in dissimilarity, fine organic substrates favor the growth of macrophytes that provide refuge for invertebrates, zooplankton, and juvenile fish. Invertebrate abundance and composition differ among different kinds of substrate. Overall benthic invertebrate diverseness is greater in the heterogeneous coastal region compared with the homogeneous profundal region. As explained later, the types of habitats found in the coastal zone depend on lake morphometry, the surrounding landscape, wind patterns, and nutrient loads to the lake.

Lake morphometry The morphometric characteristics that influence the kinds of habitats within the littoral zone include lake area, depth, shoreline sinuosity, and underwater slope. The origin of a lake largely determines lake morphometry. For example, lakes formed through tectonic or volcanic activities are usually very large, steep-sided lakes with minimal coastal areas, whereas glacial lakes and reservoirs often have complex basin shapes and big littoral areas.

Lakes with greater lake area to depth ratios, more sinuous shorelines, more than circuitous bathymetry, and shallow sloped basins volition have a larger percentage littoral zone compared with pelagic zone. For example, shallow lakes with big surface areas have big littoral zones because the light is able to penetrate to the sediment in a loftier proportion of the lake area.

Lake morphometry characteristics also influence the types of substrates found within the littoral zone. Steep sloped littoral areas typically have rocky/cobble substrates, and areas with a gradual slope tin can be dominated by fine sediments with or without macrophytes (Figure 3). Lakes with a high shoreline sinuosity have more bays with macrophytes growing on sand or muck compared with round shaped lakes, because wave action is reduced in protected bays, allowing the accumulation of fine

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Littoral dominated Pelagic dominated Ratio of pelagic to littoral zone by area

Figure 1 Number of lakes of the world dominated by littoral or pelagic zones. Modified from Wetzel RG (2001) Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems. New York: Elsevier, Academic Press.

organic sediments, nutrients and minerals, and the institution of macrophytes.

Surrounding mural The topography and geology of the land surrounding a lake influence the move of water, associated nutrients, minerals, and organic matter into the littoral zone. The relative contribution of surface runoff and groundwater to a lake depends on water infiltration and transmission rates of surrounding soils, the productivity of terrestrial vegetation, and the slope and the drainage density of the watershed.

Meridian and hydrologic menses ascertain the position of a lake in the landscape. Loftier in the mural, lakes tend to be small seepage lakes, which are fed primarily past precipitation and groundwater. Larger drainage lakes, which are fed by surface h2o, groundwater, and atmospheric precipitation, tend to be lower in the landscape (Figure 4). Lakes lower in the landscape tend to have larger, more productive littoral areas because of greater watershed inputs of nutrients, minerals, and dissolved or particulate organic cloth, from both surface water and stream connections. This material input increases buffering chapters (ability to reduce affects of acidification) and the abundance and diversity of macrophytes and the invertebrates like snails that alive on macrophytes. Too, lakes lower in the landscape usually have a more than circuitous bowl bathymetry, which likewise increases littoral area.

Air current patterns Substrates institute in the littoral zone are a function of wind patterns such every bit fetch and exposure. Fetch is the distance the wind blows beyond the lake. The windward and lee sides of the lake volition have distinctly different substrate characteristics. The stronger the wave activeness caused past the wind, the more fine particles will be suspended and eventually deposited in the profundal zone of the lakes, and the more than the littoral zone substrate will exist characterized by rocks. Wave action volition also be reduced by sinuous shorelines and macrophytes as described earlier.

Figure 2 Zonation of the littoral zone. Associated wave atmospheric condition, substrate, and invertebrates are listed. The upper littoral zone can have emergent vegetation or cobble substrates depending on the type of lake and the wave activity.

Boulders in ane Sand: local Thin organic finer matrix cobbles, gravel, l*1*^ debris or mud and organic debris

Boulders in one Sand: local Sparse organic finer matrix cobbles, gravel, l*1*^ droppings or mud and organic droppings

Figure 3 Example of habitat heterogeneity in the coastal zone and the influence of slope on substrate composition. From Moeller RE (1978) The hydrophytes of Mirror Lake: A study of vegetational structure and seasonal biomass dynamics, Ph.D. dissertation, 212 pp. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.

Food Dynamics in the Coastal Zone

Sources of food inputs Detritus (dead organic matter) and associated nutrient inputs into the littoral zone are either allochthonous (derived from terrestrial sources) or autochthonous (aquatic sources). Allochthonous sources include groundwater, precipitation, fluvial inputs, terrestrial plant litter fall, and materials from soil erosion. Nutrients tin can likewise be transported into the littoral zone past animals moving betwixt the terrestrial and the littoral zone for food resources (i.e., amphibians, waterfowl, or mammals such equally beaver, etc.) or every bit food resource (i.e., minor mammals) for aquatic organisms such as fish. Autochthonous sources of nutrients come from the death of aquatic organisms (plants and animals), and secretion, excretion, and egestion from living animals and plants.

The distribution of detritus influences the availability of dissolved organic affair and nutrients for biotic uptake. Detritus deposited in the profundal zone may go permanently lost from littoral nutrient webs, whereas detritus deposited within the coastal zone can contribute to internal loading of dissolved organic matter and nutrients (i.e., phosphorus and nitrogen) for primary and secondary production. Much of the energy that drives ecosystem metabolism comes from allochthonous or autochthonous detritus, and shallower lakes with a greater pct of coastal area have a net deposition rate of detrital organic affair that is always greater than that of deeper lakes.

Retention chapters of the coastal zone The retentiveness time of water, nutrients, and detritus is influenced past the size and configuration of the littoral zone. Deep lakes have longer water retention times (up to hundreds or thousands of years) compared with shallow lakes (ofttimes less than a twelvemonth) and the pelagic zone

High in landscape

Low in landscape

Figure 4 Lakes in the landscape. Hydrologic connectedness ranges from isolated lakes to those connected past large rivers. Magnuson JJ, Kratz TK, Benson BJ (eds.) (2006) Long-Term Dynamics of Lakes in the Mural: Long-Term Ecological Research on North Temperate Lakes, 51 pp. Oxford, Uk: Oxford University Press.

Loftier in mural

Low in landscape

Effigy 4 Lakes in the landscape. Hydrologic connection ranges from isolated lakes to those continued by large rivers. Magnuson JJ, Kratz TK, Benson BJ (eds.) (2006) Long-Term Dynamics of Lakes in the Landscape: Long-Term Ecological Inquiry on N Temperate Lakes, 51 pp. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

has longer retentivity times compared with the littoral zone. The amount of fourth dimension h2o is retained within the littoral zone influences the dynamics of nutrients inside the lake. The longer it takes for water to pass through the littoral zone, the greater the amount of nutrients that volition exist used past plants and animals in the littoral zone.

Although deep lakes have a greater retention time of water, they unremarkably have a minor littoral zone that continuously loses detritus and nutrients to the pro-fundal zone every bit detritus sinks through the metalim-nion. In some stratified lakes, half of the total phosphorus can be lost to the hypolimnion (profun-dal zone) during the summertime and only partially returned by the mixing of the lake in the spring and fall. Shallow lakes, on the other mitt, do not have this constant nutrient loss because they accept a greater proportion of the epilimnion volume in contact with the lake lesser. Thus in shallow lakes, nutrients are recycled within the littoral zone at a greater rate and less loss to the profundal zone occurs.

The coastal zone has therefore been described as a 'metabolic sieve' or 'trap' because of its ability to strain incoming h2o and nutrients earlier passing it on to the pelagic and profundal zone. In many cases, most of the dissolved organic matter and nutrients that are not used in the coastal zone volition ultimately exist lost to sedimentation and burial in the profundal zone.

Major nutrients in the littoral zone In that location are many nutrients and minerals (silica, calcium, atomic number 26, manganese, sulfur, etc.) that influence the type of chemical and biological processes that occur in the littoral zone. For instance, high concentrations of ions such as calcium and magnesium increase the buffering capability of lakes. Iron and manganese bind to phosphorus (often the nutrient most limiting main production) in aerobic conditions making it unavailable for biotic uptake. Calcium is used by snails and other invertebrates for shell or exoskeleton maintenance, while sponges and diatoms require silica for spicule and exam construction.

Not only do littoral biota require nutrients and minerals, merely in plough organisms such equally bacteria, macrophytes, benthic invertebrates, and benthivorous fish change the availability and composition of nutrients inside the coastal zone. Autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria can use and produce many different nutrients and gases including oxygen, carbon dioxide, fe, several nitrogen and sulfur products, and methane, depending on whether the conditions are aerobic or anaerobic. Macrophytes modify the chemical composition in the coastal zone by altering the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations and pH levels in the surrounding sediments and overlying h2o. Benthic invertebrates and fish increase nutrient release, such as phosphorus, through sediment resuspension.

The Biota of the Littoral Zone

Biota of the littoral zone includes both permanent and transient species (Figure v).

Transient species - those that motion in and out of the littoral zone from the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem and pelagic zone create linkages between the coastal zone and surrounding environment. Both the biota and associated linkages are discussed in this section.

For ease of constructing the food web, organisms in Figure v are grouped as either being terrestrial or aquatic. However, sure species within each grouping actually belong in both the terrestrial ecosystem and the littoral zone (i.eastward., amphibians and waterfowl) or in both the littoral and pelagic zones (i.e., zooplankton and fish). The of import point is that many species, including some of those discussed below, use multiple food resources and zones within the lake, which can have cascading effects throughout terrestrial, littoral, and pelagic food webs.

Figure 5 Linkages between the coastal zone with the terrestrial ecosystem as well as pelagic zone. Arrows represent energy menstruum. Only the interactions with the coastal zone are shown. There are interactions between biota on land and in the pelagic zone that are not depicted in this effigy.

Terrestrial

Waterfowl: Dabbling ducks mallards, swans, geese Other birds: Gulls, terns, eagles

Mammals: Otter, beaver, racoon, mice, etc.

Reptiles: Snakes, turtles

Insects: Damselfly, dragonfly, mayflies, etc.

Waterfowl: Dabbling ducks mallards, swans, geese Other birds: Gulls, terns, eagles

Mammals: Otter, beaver, racoon, mice, etc.

Insects: Damselfly, dragonfly, mayflies, etc.

Pelagic

Fish: Piscivores planktivores

Zooplankton

Pelagic

Fish: Piscivores planktivores

Zooplankton

A
Macrophytes/periphyton 1
	Leaner Bacteria Bacterial product is up to 120 times greater in the coastal zone than in the pelagic zone. Leaner are 1 of the main biotic components that permit the littoral zone to act as a 'metabolic sieve.' The main function of leaner in the littoral zone is to break downwards allochthonous and autochthonous organic material. As bacteria procedure detritus, different nutrients and gases, such every bit particulate and dissolved organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, methane and sulfur, etc., are produced and in many cases become available to other biota in the littoral zone. Lakes with large, shallow coastal zones will have increased bacteria metabolism and faster detrital processing. Periphyton Periphyton is a mixture of autotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms embedded in a matrix of organic detritus (refer to 'see also' section). Periphyton covers most submerged substrates, ranging from sand to macrophytes to rock. The metabolic importance of periphyton at the whole lake calibration is constrained by the morphometry and substrate characteristics of the littoral zone. In oligotrophic lakes, even those with few macrophytes for periphyton to abound on, periphyton can be an important component of whole-lake primary production. For example, in one oligotrophic lake, the coastal zone comprised simply xv% of the lake, but the periphyton accounted for 70-85% of the lake main production. In eutrophic lakes, however, phytoplankton is more abundant and shading by phytoplankton reduces periphyton and macrophyte abundance. Periphyton is a common food source for invertebrates and some amphibians. Macrophytes Macrophytes require specific substrate types to thrive, and their growth provides a unique habitat for other organisms (refer to 'see also' section). Macrophytes grow best in a mixture of sand and muck, and are oft found in areas with upwelling groundwater. Once macrophytes become established inside the littoral zone they modify the microclimate through the reduction of wave free energy and the creation of thermal gradients that prevents water from mixing. These conditions promote particle sedimentation. The degree of microclimate modification depends on the characteristics of the sediment structure, food availability, and diffusion of oxygen through the sediment. Macrophytes are integral to food cycling in the littoral zone as both sources and sinks of nutrients. Traditionally, limnologists have considered macrophytes a nutrient source, since they may incorporate nutrients from the anoxic sediment and then release them into the water column upon senescence. Others have constitute that nutrients removed from sediments or surrounding h2o cavalcade by plants are largely retained by plants until the plants decay. In improver to their part in nutrient cycling, macro-phytes provide of import habitat for organisms such as bacteria, periphyton, zooplankton, invertebrates, amphibians, fish, and waterfowl. Invertebrates and small fish utilize macrophytes equally a habitat refuge from predation by invertebrates (east.g., dragonfly or damselfly nymphs), fish (e.g., Esox), and amphibians, and as a place to reproduce. For many invertebrates (east.g., insects, crustaceans) and vertebrates (e.m., waterfowl, moose), macrophytes are a major food source. Invertebrates Invertebrates are very diverse, and include: zooplankton, crayfish, insects, worms, and leeches. Invertebrates living on the bottom of lakes are referred to as zoobenthos, and are far more abundant and various in the coastal zone than in other lake zones. Therefore the ratio of the affluence of zoobenthos to zooplankton is inversely related to lake size. However, the accented variety and abundance of zoobenthos increases with lake size. Invertebrate diversity is too positively related to habitat complexity, macrophyte abundance, electrical conductivity, and the presence of stream connections. Habitat availability within the littoral zone influences the type of invertebrates that will colonize (Figure 2). For instance, ephemeroptera (mayflies) and plecoptera (stoneflies) by and large adopt substrates that have higher wave action and coarser substrates, while lightly disturbed fine sediments are colonized past chironomids (midge larvae), bivalves (clams), and oli-gochaetes (worms). Substrate, macrophyte abundance, and detritus are the 3 main factors decision-making the variety and distribution of invertebrates, but water depth, wave exposure, and water clarity, (which influence the kickoff three principal factors) may consequently also affect invertebrate abundance and distribution. Fish Like invertebrate multifariousness, fish diversity is positively related with lake size and habitat complexity. The use by fish of different coastal zone habitats also frequently varies seasonally and with the historic period or size of the fish. As mentioned higher up, macrophytes are both a refuge and a hunting footing for predatory fish. Some fish species (e.grand., Perca spp.) also use macrophytes as substrate for egg-laying. Many other fish species lay eggs inside cobble substrates, and some use cobble equally a refuge (due east.g., sculpin, darters, juvenile burbot). Fish are often classified by their primary food source. Piscivores mainly swallow other fish, planktivores consume plankton, benthivores feed on zoobenthos, and herbivores consume macrophytes and periphyton. Some fish species may change what they eat as they mature into adulthood. For case, many fish species eat plankton equally a juvenile and smaller fish as an adult. Even adult fish may have very broad diets as they move between littoral and pelagic zones (Figure 5). Terrestrial - Littoral Links It is impossible to dissever the processes that occur within a lake from the surrounding watershed and even the air to a higher place the watershed. Many organisms move resources and energy between the surrounding watershed and the coastal zone. Food resources from the littoral zone are an of import source of energy for many terrestrial and semi-terrestrial organisms. Fish, for example, are eaten by many different terrestrial and amphibious species including waterfowl, hawks, herons, egrets, mammals, reptiles, and humans. Aquatic invertebrates found inside the littoral zone provide an important source of protein for terrestrial and semi-terrestrial organisms. The reproductive success of ducks is closely related to the availability of chironomids and other insects emerging from their benthic larval grade. Waterfowl, such as geese, feed on aquatic plants and can remove up to fifty% of the standing stock of macrophytes in some areas. Food resources from the terrestrial ecosystem are besides important for littoral species. Depending on the time of the twelvemonth and the species of fish, up to one-half the food consumed can be allochthonous insects and small mammals. Some other type of resources that is moved from land to the littoral zone is large woody droppings used by beavers to construct their lodges. The woody debris used past beavers also provides habitat for many fishes. Finally, transient organisms such as waterfowl, mink, otter, beaver, muskrat, snakes, and turtles, amongst others, motility nutrients in and out of the littoral zone via feeding and excretion and egestion. The riparian habitat is another resource that is important for species that use the littoral zone. For example, snakes and turtles sun themselves on logs and rocks found forth the shoreline. Waterfowl and some mammals use the low lying shoreline habitat to make their nests, while eagles and some diving ducks use the trees surrounding lakes for their nesting sites. Hawks also utilise trees surrounding the lake as a perch to search for food. Riparian habitat is important for amphibians (e.g., newts and frogs) during different times within their lives. Trophic cascades - food web interactions that strongly alter the affluence of iii or more trophic levels - are well documented in the pelagic and coastal zone of lakes. They as well cross the littoralland interface (Effigy six). Plants nigh ponds with fish take more visits from pollinators than plants near ponds without fish. This is because in ponds with fish, larval dragonflies are reduced past fish predation, and thus the affluence of adult dragonflies is likewise decreased. Adult dragonflies have direct and indirect effects on insect pollinators. They directly prey upon the pollinators and indirectly reduce the number of pollinator visits only by beingness present. Littoral - Pelagic Links The littoral and the pelagic zones are also strongly linked, especially by the diel horizontal migration of zooplankton, and by fish movements. Zooplankton sometimes motility upward to 30 k horizontally twice each day between zones. Zooplankton that unremarkably reside in the pelagic zone will move into macrophyte habitats during the day to avert pelagic predators such as Chaoborus (phantom midge larvae) and visually feeding planktivores like minor fishes. In some lakes, this movement can benefit zooplankton through reduced mortality from fish predation, food availability in the littoral zone (some zooplankton tin go browsers in the littoral zone compared to existence filter feeders in the pelagic zone), and enhanced growth. Predation by planktivores is often reduced by migration into the coastal zone, but in some lakes, littoral invertebrates (e.g., dragonfly larvae) pose a substantial risk of predation within the coastal zone. Thus, zooplankton movement depends on the complex interactions occurring in both the pelagic and littoral zones, which differ among lakes. Fish movements also link the littoral and pelagic zones. The dependency of fish on coastal product differs by fish type, with planktivores, benthivores, and fifty-fifty piscivores relying on coastal food production to some degree (Figure 7). Fish that are oftentimes categorized as pelagic planktivores can derive upwardly to 30% of their energy from the littoral zone, while fish categorized as piscivores sometimes derive almost all their energy, at to the lowest degree indirectly (due east.g., from other fish that consume littoral-derived foods), from the littoral zone (Effigy 7). Without the littoral zone, the production of many fish, including fish that may rarely venture into the coastal zone, would decline dramatically. Pollinator Fish s Fish Effigy 6 Example of a trophic cascade that links the terrestrial ecosystem with the littoral zone. Fish reduce the abundance of dragonflies, which leads to increased pollinators, and thereby facilitating the reproduction of terrestrial plants. Solid arrows indicate direct interactions; dashed arrows denote indirect interactions. + are positive interactions, - represents negative interactions. Modified from Knight etal. (2005) Trophic cascades across ecosystems. Nature 437: 880-883. 100-1 Figure 7 The range of reliance different types of fishes have on coastal zone resources. Modified from Vadeboncoeur etal. (2005) Effects of multi-chain omnivory on the strength of trophic control in lakes. Ecosystems 8: 682-693. The Anthropogenic Influences on the Coastal Zone Humans derive many ecosystem goods (east.g., harvested fish and waterfowl) and services (e.g., water purification, water supply) from the littoral zones of lakes. In plough, humans have immense impacts on the structure and part of the coastal zone. Beginning, increased food loading from activities such as logging, agriculture, and development causes eutrophi-cation. Eutrophication leads to increased primary production in the littoral zone of many lakes, which tin cause undesirable algal blooms, besides as increases in undesirable fish and cloudy water. 2nd, human-mediated spread of invasive species (eastward.g., zebra mussels, rusty crayfish, circular gobies) alters nutrient cycling and food spider web composition in the coastal zone, causing changes that are generally undesirable to humans. Tertiary, fossil fuel combustion in industry and automobiles causes acid deposition and climate modify. In many cases, acidification of lakes causes decreased abundance and multifariousness of macrophytes, invertebrates, and fish, while increasing filamentous light-green algal production, all of which has cascading effects through the nutrient spider web. Acidification also causes the release of metals toxic to fish, e.thou., aluminum and mercury. Some of these metals bioaccumulate in fish, which and so makes the fish hazardous to humans. Climatic change is expected to cause warmer lake waters, and in many parts of the earth, will reduce runoff, increase water residence times, lower h2o levels, and increase evaporation. Concentrations of many ions will therefore increase, causing changes in nutrient and detritus availability besides as principal and secondary production within the littoral zone. Warming could also pb to poleward range expansion of many littoral species, further irresolute food web dynamics. Finally, fluctuations in water level are often increased by irrigation and dams. At loftier water levels, flooding and erosion of riparian habitat occurs. This increases the dissolved organic matter input and turbidity in the coastal zone. On the other paw, water drawdown has both positive and negative effects on the littoral zone, depending on the lake basin morphometry. Steep sided littoral zones are non equally affected as shallow sloping ones. At low water levels macrophytes are reduced, the percent of sandy/fine grained habitat increases, benthic invertebrate diversity and abundance decreases and fish refuges and spawning habitat can be reduced. The response of the coastal zone to all these anthropogenic impacts is influenced by the construction and function of the littoral zone as well as the interaction betwixt the littoral zone and the terrestrial ecosystem and the pelagic and profundal zones. The caste to which a lake responds or the length of time a lake tin can resist existence effected by 1 of the humanmediated stressors described above depends on the size of the littoral zone, the position of the lake within the mural, the abundance and distribution of dissimilar habitats within the littoral zone, and different biota present within that zone. Therefore, the littoral zone is of import for whole lake operation besides as the response of the whole lake to man beings. Meet also: Benthic Invertebrate Creature, Lakes and Reservoirs; Effects of Climate Change on Lakes; Eutrophication of Lakes and Reservoirs; Shallow Lakes and Ponds. Farther Reading Burks R. L, Social club D. M, Jeppesen E, and Lauridsen T. L (2002) Diel horizontal migration of Zooplankton: Costs and benefits of inhabiting the littoral. Freshwater Biological science 47: 343-365. Gasith A and Gafny Due south (1990) Effects of water level fluctuation on the sturucture and function of the coastal zone. In: Tilzer M. M and Serruya C (eds.) Large Lakes: Ecological Structure and Function, pp. 156-171. New York: Srpinger. Jeppesen Due east, Sondergaard K, Sondergaard M, and Christoffersen K (eds.) (1998) The Structuring Role of SubmergedMacrophytes in Lakes. New York: Springer. Kalff J (2002) Limnology: Inland Water Ecosystems. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Knight T. Thou, McCoy M. W, Chase J. M, et al. (2005) Trophic cascades across ecosystems. Nature 437: 880-883. Likens G. E (ed.) (1985) An Ecosystem Approach to Aquatic Ecology. New York: Springer. Lodge D. 1000, Barko J. W, Strayer D, et al. (1988) Spatial heterogeneity and habitat interactions in lake communities. In: Carpenter Due south. R (ed.) Complex Interactions in Lake Communities. New York: Springer. Magnuson J. J, Kratz T. M, and Benson B. J (eds.) (2006) Long-Term Dynamics of Lakes in the Landscape: Long-Term Ecological Research on N Temperate Lakes. Oxford, U.k.: Oxford University Press. O'Sullivan P. E and Reynolds C. S (eds.) (2004) The Lakes Handbook. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science. Pieczynska E (1993) Detritus and nutrient dynamics in the shore zone of lakes: A review. Hydrobiologia 251: 49-58. Scheffer 1000 (1998) Ecology of Shallow Lakes. New York: Chapman and Hall. Vadeboncoeur Y, McCann K. S, VanderZanden M. J, and Rasmussen J. B (2005) Furnishings of multi-chain omnivory on the strength of trophic control in lakes. Ecosystems 8: 682-693. Weatherhead M. A and James 1000. R (2001) Distribution of macro-invertebrates in relation to physical and biological variables in the littoral zone of nine New Zealand lakes. Hydrobiologia 462: 115-129. Wetzel R. Thousand (1989) Land-h2o interfaces: Metabolic and limno-logical regulators. International Association of Theoretical and Practical Limnology Proceedings 24: six-24. Wetzel R. Thou (1989) Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems. New York: Academic Press.

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